Evidence-based Practice in Healthcare Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Evidence-based Practice in Healthcare - Essay Example It is now a nursing competence criterion to rely on and implement best evidence available from relevant research to devise the care plan. This is expected to base on critical review of research and synthesis of evidence which can be used to justify practice (Simko, 2005). Mantzoukas (2008) indicated that evidence based practice leads to effective decision making leading to enhanced clinical performance. A literature review with a critical approach is considered to be the best method of synthesizing evidence. This means a critique of scientific research based literature can reveal evidence which can be used in practice (Mantzoukas, 2008). To this end, a critique of literatures on the topic of nursing methods of postoperative pain management will be conducted, so an evidence base may be created that can inform practice. A critique of relevant literature can provide information on a clinical problem through the use of research knowledge. This can be done through location of relevant studies, review of the studies in the problem area, summarizing what is known, identifying what is unknown, and recognising the gaps in the knowledge. Thus the critique can support or refute practice or identify a new way of intervention (Scott & McSherry, 2009). Miaskowski (2005) indicated that effective postoperative management of pain is a significant clinical problem. Although there are established clinical practice guidelines, it is a fact that postoperative pain is often treated inadequately. Some studies have indicated that despite receiving analgesic management, about 75% of the patients have moderate to severe postoperative pain. In most of the cases, it has been demonstrated that the healthcare professionals often underestimate pain. In some cases, inadequate knowledge of the healthcare professionals about opioid use and side effects has been attributed to such gaps in postoperative pain management (Miaskowski, 2005). Moreover, there are certain very prominent ill effects of inadequate postoperative pain management, which can be detrimental to the wellbeing of the patient. Some of these substantiate the need for evidence based practice in this area. These are prolonged recovery, increased stay and cost, and decreased patient satisf action (Michel & Sanders, 2002). Physiologically, inadequate resolution of postoperative pain is also not desirable due to adverse physiological responses of the patient, which specially in postoperative phase may make the recovery problematic. Therefore, there is a need for evidence based practice, and critique of relevant research articles and synthesis of information could be the best way (Tracy, Dufault, Kogut, Martin, Rossi, & Willey-Temkin, 2006). Literature Search Strategy From the University database and library, a literature search was conducted based on the key words "postoperative pain", "postoperative pain management", "nursing", and "best methods" or "best practice." A combination of words were used to search the literature, and out of about 100 different studies located, only three of them were selected for this critical review in order to synthesize the evidence. Literature Review Shapiro et al. (2003) in their study compared the analgesic efficacy of three different methods in postoperative

Business Impact Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Business Impact Analysis - Essay Example ing the postal system is the Office of Inspector General (OIG) whose chief officer reports directly to the Postal Office’s Governors and not subject to any supervisory jurisdiction to any other Postal Service in the country (USPS OIG: David Williams, 2010). Due to the delicate nature of the tasks, responsibilities, and accountabilities accorded all personnel working for USPS OIG, a business impact analysis is most useful in assisting management in determining which functions are critical to the continued operation of the organization. According the its official website, the mission of the office is to assist in the maintenance of confidence through safeguarding the organization’s bottom line concurrent with undertaking both audits and investigations. It was specifically stated that â€Å"audits of postal programs and operations help to determine whether the programs and operations are efficient and cost-effective. Investigations help prevent and detect fraud, waste, and misconduct and have a deterrent effect on postal crimes† (USPS OIG: Mission, 2010, par.1). In this regard, the OIG is tasked with focusing on the following strategic goals which are considered relevant as giving direction to the organization: generation of revenue, improving and increasing the organization’s efficiency in performance, focusing on improvement of service, emphasis on a culture which focuses on the customers, increasing awareness on sustainability efforts, and regular monitoring and apprising on regulatory studies and obligations to report (OIG: Semi-Annual Report to Congress, 2008, 7). Business impact assessment is one of the steps incorporated in business continuity planning. Since OIG undertakes audits and investigations, the initial step to identify critical areas that would ensure the accomplishment of identified objectives entails reviewing the STEEP (social, technological, economic, ecological, and political) factors that impact its operations (Van der Heijden, et.al.,

The Reality of Work cultures in the Modern Economy Essay

The Reality of Work cultures in the Modern Economy - Essay Example Sennett’s argument is based on the assertion that the flexibilities and the uncertainties of the correct working life are eroding the integrity of the sense of the sustained purpose in the employee’s life in the manner that have existed before in the society (Bradley, 2009). Indeed, the new era of the economy and work inclusive of the globalisation of the work, breaking apart of the bureaucracy and flexibility changes the work values in the most profound manner. As the networks are constantly redefining their characters and structures, the same thing is bound to happen to the employees that work in the episodic work relations and the short-term contracts (Giddens et al., 2000). In Schumpeterian terms, the entrepreneur is served as an ideal Everyman alongside the â€Å"portfolio worker† (Winter, 1984). Sennett asserts that the corroding of the character is the inevitable consequences of the uncertainties that are present in the everyday practices of the vigorous c apitalism of the 1990s. The character of the workers is mainly threatened by the new type of the labour in the modern economy-flexible work (Jessop et al., 1987). Thus, this conforms to Sennett’s assertion that flexibility in the workplace is the main characteristic of the modern working environment. Conversely, it’s true that flexibility brings advantages to the corporations and the enterprises.

Communication and organizational Performance Essay

Communication and organizational Performance - Essay Example As a result, they have been forced to adopt strategies and behaviors that can help them improve their performance and profitability and therefore remain relevant. Over the years, communication has proved to be one of the most central factors to individual and organizational performance (Abugre, 2007, p. 42). Effective communication has the potential of significantly improving individual and organizational performance. On the other hand poor communicant can considerably compromise individual and organizational performance. Communication is indeed any organization’s lifeblood. Communication directly influences employee trust, productivity, and morale (Ng et al, 2006, p. 474). Studies have shown that effective communications can maximize efficiency, company operations, increase organization’s overall success, and accelerate the corporate strategy execution. Most managers have realized the essence of communication in organizational performance and are extensively using corp orate communication to achieve organizational goals and objectives (May and Mumby, 2005, p. 29). This paper will critically evaluate the extent to which managers use corporate communication to manipulate understanding and encourage compliance with management direction. Corporate communication enables corporate organization to relay information to its employees, shareholders, stakeholders, agencies, media, and the general public. It is important that an organization communicate the same message to its publics and especially its employees in ethical, credible, and coherent manner. According to Robson, Skarmeas and Spyropoulou (2006, p. 585), corporate communication enables employees of an organization to coordinate tasks, learn from each other and help them to create and maintain viable relationships. Several studies have shown that corporate communication is linked to improved performance in the sense that it enhances employees’ commitment in the workplace, provides opportunit y for learning, and is critical in enhancing employee satisfaction (Buchanan and Huczynski, 2010, p. 70). While corporate communication in itself is central to individual and organizational performance, it is not enough for an organization to have corporate communication as part of its strategies. Corporate communication of any organization should be designed in such a way that it achieves its objectives and significantly contributes to the achievement of overall organizational goals and objectives. It should be packaged in such a way that it has huge and positive managerial impacts; in other words it should be a channel to flow of information, policies, and even resources (Cornelissen, 2011, p. 18). Corporate communication is a managerial tool that is often expected to coordinate activities, share information, policies, and resources with employees, reduce unnecessary managerial rules and burdens, and eventually improve organizational performance (Robson, Skarmeas and Spyropoulou, 2006, p. 589). In the absence of corporate communication, organized activities of organizations would cease to exist and organization would have many uncoordinated activities which in return would lead to poor organizational performance (Abugre, 2007, p. 45). It is in the light of this fact that managers use corporate communi

UNICEF and the Safeguard of Children Rights Essay Example for Free

UNICEF and the Safeguard of Children Rights Essay UNICEF’s mission is to advocate for the protection of children’s rights, to help meet their basic needs and to expand their opportunities to reach their full potential. UNICEF is guided in doing this by the provisions and principles of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNICEF, 2008). Built on varied legal systems and cultural traditions, the Convention is a universally agreed set of non-negotiable standards and obligations (UNICEF, 2006). The Convention on the Rights of the Child is the first legally binding international instrument to incorporate the full range of human rights civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights (Freeman, 1996). In 1989, world leaders decided that children needed a special convention just for them because people under eighteen years old often need special care and protection that adults do not (Alston, 1992). The leaders also wanted to make sure that the world recognized that children have human rights too. The Convention sets out these rights in 54 articles and two Optional Protocols. It spells out the basic human rights that children everywhere have: the right to survival; to develop to the fullest; to protection from harmful influences, abuse and exploitation; and to participate fully in family, cultural and social life (UNICEF, 2006). The four core principles of the Convention are non-discrimination; devotion to the best interests of the child; the right to life, survival and development; and respect for the views of the child (Jasper, 1994). Every right spelled out in the Convention is inherent to the human dignity and harmonious development of every child. The Convention protects childrens rights by setting standards in health care; education; and legal, civil and social services (Jasper, 1994). By agreeing to undertake the obligations of the Convention, national governments committed themselves to protecting and ensuring childrens rights and they have agreed to hold themselves accountable for this commitment before the international community. States parties to the Convention are obliged to develop and undertake all actions and policies in the light of the best interests of the child (Stein, 1998). Most of the governments have incorporated this issue in their development plan courtesy of UNICEF. UNICEFs work for the overall protection of childhood is guided by the principles and standards established by the Convention on the Rights of the Child (Walker, 1999). In advocating to protect childrens rights, to help meet their basic needs and to expand their opportunities to reach their full potential, UNICEF helps to change the legal and policy framework of States parties and to improve understanding of the Convention itself at all levels of society (Walker, 1999). Among other activities, UNICEF works in nearly 160 countries to support ratification and implementation of the Convention and the Optional Protocols on the involvement of children in armed conflict and on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography (UNICEF, 2008). UNICEF draws attention to the duties of governments, families, communities and individuals to respect those rights and supports them in doing so. During armed conflict, children are targeted for the worst possible violence and abuse, including abduction, rape and recruitment as child soldiers, and may be forced or coerced to take part in atrocities (Peters, 1997). Because children are among the most affected by conflict they become victims and witnesses of these offences (Brandes, 1999). The lack of accountability for conflict-related crimes against children can leave child victims vulnerable to further violation and abuse. Accountability in post-conflict situations can fulfill a number of important functions (Peters, 1997). It contributes to the process of healing and helps children understand that they are not to blame for what has happened. By investigating and documenting violations committed, accountability processes raise public awareness of the impacts of conflict on children (Dobrish, 1999). Accountability can also help to break the cycle of violence, restore confidence in democracy and the rule of law, and strengthen the legitimacy and authority of the new government (Fox, 1997). In recent years, truth, justice and reconciliation processes have begun to focus specifically on crimes committed against children and have involved children proactively, including through testimony that bears witness to their experiences(Dobrish, 1999). The recent involvement of children and adolescents in providing testimony to international and national courts and truth commissions has demonstrated their unique role as participants and as members of their communities (UNICEF, 2008). But if children are to engage in transitional justice processes their rights must be respected. The review and analysis of emerging good practices on the involvement of children and adolescents in truth, justice and reconciliation processes has brought to light a number of dilemmas. For example, it is recognized that children and adolescents who have been recruited to take part in hostilities are primarily victims of armed conflict. At the same time, many argue that some form of accountability for crimes committed by children is in their best interests and could contribute to processes of reconciliation and reintegration (Teitelbaum, 1999). Mechanisms of accountability for serious violations committed during armed conflict include a wide range of options, such as judicial prosecutions, truth commissions, restorative justice processes and traditional practices (Kurmay, 1996). When children engage in truth, justice and reconciliation processes, new possibilities and new challenges are encountered. In a number of instances, child-friendly procedures have been introduced to safeguard the rights of children who become involved and to support their protection throughout the process (Teitelbaum, 1999). This can help build children’s confidence and restore their sense of justice in the social and political order, while also establishing a mechanism of accountability for crimes committed against them. However, many questions remain as to how best to protect the rights of children involved as victims and witnesses in these contexts. Ideally children’s participation should strengthen and enhance their protection, and protection measures should enable participation (Kurmay, 1996). In the long term, if children are excluded from transitional processes, they may become frustrated and vulnerable to a continuing cycle of violence, impacting future generations. Failure to address their concerns also wastes the capacity and potential of children and adolescents to serve as catalysts for reconciliation and peace-building within their own communities (Dwyer, 1999). The importance of furthering efforts to support children’s involvement in transitional justice processes was identified during an expert discussion on Transitional Justice and Children convened by the UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre (IRC) in November 2005. It was proposed that research on children and truth commissions be undertaken, identifying good practices and lessons learned, and recommending strategies to improve and facilitate children’s participation in future truth commissions(UNICEF, 2006). Documentation on the role of children in truth commissions was initiated by UNICEF IRC and the International Center for Transitional Justice (ICTJ) (UNICEF, 2006). In the course of research underway on children and truth commissions, a number of issues have emerged requiring further research and analysis in order to better understand the potential and the limits of children’s participation in transitional justice processes (ACF, 2007). As a result it was decided to initiate an Expert Paper Series on Children and Transitional Justice, addressing a broad range of issues, including judicial accountability, truth-seeking, local, traditional and restorative justice processes, and institutional reform. The Series has helped to build a network for sharing information and expertise, generating discussion and debate among key stakeholders (UNICEF, 2006). These include child protection advocates, government agents, legal experts and academics. The objective of the expert paper series is to improve accountability for crimes against children and to protect the rights of children involved in transitional justice processes (ACF, 2007). Specific papers will document and analyze emerging good practices and lessons learned; evaluate the potential role of children; and anticipate and promote strategies for involving children in future transitional processes(ACF, 2007). It is anticipated that studies undertaken in this series will help to guide the involvement of children in truth, justice and reconciliation processes in post-conflict transition. UNICEF works closely with other human rights bodies such as Human Security Network (HSN). This is an organization which has a long-standing commitment to human rights and to the protection of the most vulnerable both in peace and in times of conflict (Marta, 2007). The Human Security Network plays a decisive role in advancing the implementation of the Convention and of its two Optional Protocols, and in reaffirming, in each and every decision the general principles of non discrimination, best interests of the child, survival and development and participation of the child (UNICEF, 2008). The year 2007 was a landmark year for the protection of children’s rights. Indeed, 2007 marked the 18th anniversary of the adoption of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (Marta, 2007). As the Convention entered a new stage of adulthood there was an opportunity to celebrate the many important achievements and to critically reflect on the best ways of addressing the challenges ahead. The year was also marked by the General Assembly mid decade review of the follow-up to the Special Session on Children. This process was an important opportunity to reaffirm our shared commitment to children, to advance the Millennium Agenda and further consolidate a world fit for children (Marta, 2007). By 2007, there is a full prohibition of all forms of violence against children in 19 countries (UNICEF, 2008). Legislation was adopted in The Netherlands where law enactment is being supported by a communication plan designed to inform parents and the general public about the legal ban in the lead up to its entry into force. New Zealand has banned the use of reasonable force for parents in the disciplining of their children (ACF, 2008). In a number of other nations draft legislation has been prepared and in others public commitments have been undertaken to ban all forms of violence (ACF, 2008). Once the changes become effective within each of these States, one fifth of the UN Member States would have extended legal protection to prevent violence against children (UNICEF, 2008). UNICEF have recently developed and launched a Handbook on what parliamentarians can do to protect children from violence (UNICEF, 2008). With the participation of parliamentarians and international organizations from more than 100 countries, the launch was an opportunity to anticipate actions parliaments can take to ensure children’s freedom from violence, including through their legislative power, and to encourage and oversee government action and to promote the allocation of resources for relevant programmes and interventions(UNICEF, 2008). The Handbook will be translated in national languages and used as an important tool to support follow-up to the UN Study on Violence (Marta, 2007). The Human Security Network have partnered to promote its wide dissemination and use. Naturally, legislation is only meaningful when it is effectively applied. To make law enforcement a reality it is important to engage children in the process of implementation (Masson, 1999). It is for this reason that UNICEF has joined efforts with a number of partners to produce the child friendly version of the UN Guidelines on justice in matters involving child victims and witnesses of crime. The child friendly version was launched at the recent Crime Prevention Commission, in Vienna (UNICEF, 2008). The previous months show the instrumental role played by Professor Pinheiro as a global advocate and a catalyst for social change. But the task is just beginning and only by moving the implementation forward can we build a world free from violence for every child, wherever he or she may live (Marta, 2007). France hosted a major conference in 2006 where a wide range partners endorsed the Paris Principles to stop the recruitment and use of children in adult wars. The document represents the state of the art knowledge in the prevention, protection and reintegration of children recruited by armed forces and groups. And it has a unique potential to ensure the realization of children’s rights more broadly (UNICEF, 2008). These milestones are mutually complementary and provide a strategic vision for the future. More importantly, they give us a golden occasion to make a real difference in the lives of children (UNICEF, 2008). At the heart of this process are two closely related dimensions; child participation and the prevention of violence and conflict. Together, they both support the protection of children’s rights. A recent study of the Innocenti Research Centre a partner of UNICEF on â€Å"Birth Registration and Armed Conflict† revealed a few truths. Birth Registration is a permanent and official record of a child’s existence (Marta, 2007). It is a fundamental human right and has strong implications for the enjoyment of other human rights it thus stand as a vivid illustration of the indivisibility of children’s rights and a call to always keep a child centered approach. In times of war, birth registration gains a special relevance for child protection, for the prevention of child recruitment, abduction and exploitation, as well as for access to humanitarian assistance (ABA, 2007). Over 25 truth commissions have been convened in various countries over the last decades and several have addressed the experiences of children (ABA, 2007). But the Truth Reconciliation Commission (TRC) for Sierra Leone was the first truth commission to specifically focus on children as victims and witnesses, and to profile children’s role as actors in the reconciliation process. It is also the first case where a children’s version of the Commission’s report was prepared (ACF, 2008 ). The children’s version of the Sierra Leone Truth and Reconciliation Commission Report is one example of how children can contribute to community efforts towards reconciliation and transition, while helping to break the cycle of violence and re-establish confidence in the rule of law. UNICEF has had its fair share of challenges in protecting the rights of children. Civil wars especially in Africa have always targeted the children as recruits and this has always been a hurdle for the organization to overcome. Advocacy for children rights in a civic war infested area has not always been easy for them since the lives of the employees are also threatened. Lack of political will in various countries to support the UNICEF’s initiatives has been another monster in children rights protection. Some government agents like the police may be uncooperative in issues of child trafficking, pornography and other related cases hence the risk of failing to catch non-convicted abusers. Other barriers that have been along UNICEF’s path to success are undeveloped, unimplemented and conflicting policies on children rights and responsibilities in many countries. Lack of adequate funds to support their initiatives especially in less developed countries. Traditional practices and taboos among communities are also a major impediment since some encourage abusive practices against children such as communities’ warriors, early marriages, and local slave trade among others. Children are members of their communities and by taking part in community action they increase awareness and confidence and build their capacity for citizenship (Teitelbaum, 1999). Through their involvement in community reconciliation efforts, children can become advocates and catalysts within their families and communities, energizing reconciliation and nation building efforts (Jackson, 1999). It is by addressing the root causes of conflict and providing realistic opportunities for young people that we can begin to break the inter-generational violence that has resulted in protracted conflicts in many countries today. Finally, as we move forward and support actions to prevent all forms of violence in peace and in war through UNICEF, we must not forget that at the centre of all our efforts are individual children whose lives hang in the balance of our actions. We cannot wait another minute. When Graca Machel prepared her report in 1995, she was asked by a child, â€Å"How long will it take before things get better? A month, a year? † Today that child is an adult and another generation of children is asking the same question (UNICEF, 2008). How long will it take? The life of a child leaves no second chance. That is the urgency that must drive us in our efforts to make a real difference, a lasting difference. References: Alston, Philip, et al. , Children, rights, and the law. Oxford England: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. Alston, Philip. The best interests of the child: reconciling culture and human rights. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. Angel, William D. The international law of youth rights : source documents and commentary. Dordrecht ; Boston : M. Nijhoff, 1995. Carey, Jacqueline M. Section of Family Law Home Page. American Bar Association Family Law Section. URL: http://www. abanet. org/family/ Cohen, Cynthia Price. Childrens rights in America : U. N. Convention on the rights of the child compared with United States law. [Chicago, Ill. ] : American Bar Association Center on Children and the Law, [in cooperation with] Defense for Children International-USA, c1990. Freeman, Michael. Childrens rights : a comparative perspective. Aldershot, Hants, England ; Brookfield, Vt. : Dartmouth Pub. Co. , c1996. Jasper, Margaret C. Juvenile justice and childrens law. Dobbs Ferry, NY : Oceana Publications, 1994. Masson, J. M. (Judith M. ) Out of hearing : representing children in care proceedings. Chichester ; New York : Wiley, c1999. Mezey, Susan Gluck. Children in court : public policymaking and federal court decisions. Albany : State University of New York Press, c1996.

Studying The Future Prospective Of Nanotechnology Computer Science Essay

Studying The Future Prospective Of Nanotechnology Computer Science Essay This paper explores the present impact of nanotechnology on the consumer market. It situates the technical aspects of nanotechnology and describes some early successes of nanomaterials embraced. It includes a description of technology developments in the area of automotive industry, biomedicine, household appliances, nanowires, nanotubes, nanobubble, nanochips, healthcare and numerous other nanostructured materials with a brief description of the number of research and development activities that are in various stages of testing and qualification. II. INTRODUCTION Nanotechnology is derived from the combination of two words Nano and Technology. Nano means very small or miniature. So, Nanotechnology is the technology in miniature form. It is the combination of Bio- technology, Chemistry, Physics and Bio-informatics, et Nanotechnology is a generic term used to describe the applications that work with matter so small that it exists in the molecular and atomic realm. As the name indicates, the fundamental unit in any nanotechnology system is a nanometer, nm, which is one billionth part of a meter. Nanotechnology research shows that at such micro level, the physical, chemical and biological properties of materials are different from what they were at large scale. Nanotechnology originated in India around 16 years back. This new sphere of scientific innovation has a broader scope. Several Indian institutes have introduced degree courses in Nanotechnology at both the UG and PG levels. The areas covered in the Nanotech are Food and Beverage, Bio- Techn ology, Forensic Sciences, Genetics, Space Research, Environment industry, Medicine, Agriculture and Teaching. The fundamental idea is to harness these altered and often improved properties to develop materials, devices and systems that are superior to the existing products. For instance, breaking a material down into nanoparticles allows it to be rebuilt atom by atom, often improving material strength and decreasing weight and dimensions. Based on this concept, researchers have been able to develop a myriad of nanomaterials with amazing properties. The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, also known as CSIR has set up 38 laboratories in India dedicated to research in Nanotechnology. This technology will be used in diagnostic kits, improved water filters and sensors and drug delivery. The research is being conducted on using it to reduce pollution emitted by the vehicles .Looking at the progressive prospects of Nanotechnology in India, Nanobiosym Inc., a US-based leading nanotechnology firm is planning to set up Indias first integrated nanotechnology and biomedicine technology park in Himachal Pradesh. Nanotechnology has certainly acquired. In the long term scenario, nanotechnology promises to make revolutionary advances in a variety of fields. Possible uses of nanomaterials may include the cleaning of heavily polluted sites, more effective diagnosis and treatment of cancer, cleaner manufacturing methods and much smaller and more powerful computers. III CORE CHAPTERS A. History The first use of the concepts found in nano-technology (but pre-dating use of that name) was in Theres Plenty of Room at the Bottom, a talk given by physicist Richard Feynman at an American Physical Society meeting at Caltech on December 29, 1959. Feynman described a process by which the ability to manipulate individual atoms and molecules might be developed, using one set of precise tools to build and operate another proportionally smaller set, and so on down to the needed scale. In the course of this, he noted, scaling issues would arise from the changing magnitude of various physical phenomena: gravity would become less important, surface tension and vander waals attraction would become increasingly more significant, etc. This basic idea appeared plausible, and exponential assembly enhances it with parallelism to produce a useful quantity of end products. The term nanotechnology was defined by Tokyo Science University Professor Norio Taniguchi in a 1974 paper as follows Nano-technology mainly consists of the processing of, separation, consolidation, and deformation of materials by one atom or by one molecule. In the 1980s the basic idea of this definition was explored in much more depth by Dr. K. Eric Drexler, who promoted the technological significance of nano-scale phenomena and devices through speeches and the books Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology (1986) and Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation, and so the term acquired its current sense. Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology is considered the first book on the topic of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology and nanoscience got started in the early 1980s with two major developments; the birth of cluster science and the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope (STM). This development led to the discovery of fullerenes i n 1985 and carbon nanotubes a few years later. In another development, the synthesis and properties of semiconductor nanocrystals was studied; this led to a fast increasing number of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles and quantum dots. The atomic force microscope (AFM or SFM) was invented six years after the STM was invented. In 2000, the United States National Nanotechnology Initiative was founded to coordinate Federal nanotechnology research and development and is evaluated. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/C60a.png/175px-C60a.png Fig.1. Buckminsterfullerene C60, also known as the buckyball, is a representative member of the carbon structures known as fullerenes and is a major subject of research in nanotechnology. B. Current Research Nanomaterials field includes subfields which develop or study materials having unique properties arising from their nanoscale dimensions. Interface and colloid science has given rise to many materials which may be useful in nanotechnology, such as carbon nanotubes and other fullerenes, and various nanoparticles and nanorods. Nanomaterials with fast ion transport are related also to nanoionics and nanoelectronics. Nanoscale materials can also be used for bulk applications; most present commercial applications of nanotechnology are of this flavor. Progress has been made in using these materials for medical applications; see Nanomedicine. Nanoscale materials are sometimes used in solar cells which combats the cost of traditional Silicon solar cell. Development of applications incorporating semiconductor nanoparticles to be used in the next generation of products, such as display technology, lighting, solar cells and biological imaging; see quantum dots. 1) Top-down Approaches: These seek to create smaller devices by using larger ones to direct their assembly.Many technologies that descended from conventional solid-state silicon methods for fabricating microprocessors are now capable of creating features smaller than 100  nm, falling under the definition of nanotechnology. Giant magnetoresistance-based hard drives already on the market fit this description, as do atomic layer deposition 2) Bottom-up Approaches: These seek to arrange smaller components into more complex assemblies.DNA nanotechnology utilizes the specificity of Watson-Crick basepairing to construct well-defined structures out of DNA and other nucleic acids. Approaches from the field of classical chemical synthesis also aim at designing molecules with well-defined shape (e.g. bis -peptides). More generally, molecular self-assembly seeks to use concepts of supramolecular chemistry, and molecular recognitionin particular, to cause single-molecule components to automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation. Peter Grà ¼nberg and Albert Fert received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2007 for their discovery of Giant magnetoresistance and contributions to the field of spintronics. Solid-state techniques can also be used to create devices known as nanoelectromechanical systems or NEMS, which are related to microelectromechanical systems or MEMS. Atomic force microscope tips can be used as a nan oscale write head to deposit a chemical upon a surface in a desired pattern in a process called dip pen nanolithography. This fits into the larger subfield of nanolithography. Focused ion beams can directly remove material, or even deposit material when suitable pre-cursor gasses are applied at the same time. For example, this technique is used routinely to create sub-100  nm sections of material for analysis in Transmission electron microscopy. 3) Functional Approaches: These seek to develop components of a desired functionality without regard to how they might be assembled.Molecular electronics seeks to develop molecules with useful electronic properties. These could then be used as single-molecule components in a nanoelectronic device. For an example see rotaxane. Synthetic chemical methods can also be used to create synthetic molecular motors, such as in a so-called nanocar. 4) Biomimetic Approaches: Bionics or biomimicry seeks to apply biological methods and systems found in nature, to the study and design of engineering systems and modern technology. Biomineralization is one example of the systems studied.Bionanotechnology the use of biomolecules for applications in nanotechnology, including use of viruses. C. Tools and Techniques A microfabricated cantilever with a sharp tip is deflected by features on a sample surface, much like in a phonograph but on a much smaller scale. A laser beam reflects off the backside of the cantilever into a set of photodetectors, allowing the deflection to be measured and assembled into an image of the surface. There are several important modern developments. The atomic force microscope (AFM) and the Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) are two early versions of scanning probes that launched nanotechnology. There are other types of scanning probe microscopy, all flowing from the ideas of the scanning confocal microscope developed by Marvin Minsky in 1961 and the eloped by Calvin Quate and coworkers in the 1970s, that made it possible to see structures at the nanoscale. The tip of a scanning probe can also be used to manipulate nanostructures (a process called positional assembly). Feature-oriented scanning-positioning mescanning acoustic microscope (SAM) dev thodology suggested by Rostislav Lapshin appears to be a promising way to implement these nanomanipulations in automatic mode. However, this is still a slow process because of low scanning velocity of the microscope. Various techniques of nanolithography such as optical lithography, X-ray lithography dip pen nanolithography, electron bea m lithography or nanoimprint lithography were also developed. Lithography is a top-down fabrication technique where a bulk material is reduced in size to nanoscale pattern. The top-down approach anticipates nanodevices that must be built piece by piece in stages, much as manufactured items are made. Scanning probe microscopy is an important technique both for characterization and synthesis of nanomaterials. Atomic force microscopes and scanning tunneling microscopes can be used to look at surfaces and to move atoms around. By designing different tips for these microscopes, they can be used for carving out structures on surfaces and to help guide self-assembling structures. By using, for example, feature-oriented scanning-positioning approach, atoms can be moved around on a surface with scanning probe microscopy techniques. At present, it is expensive and time-consuming for mass production but very suitable for laboratory experimentation. D. Nanotechnologys Future Over the next two decades, this new field for controlling the properties of matter will rise to prominence through four evolutionary stages. Today nanotechnology is still in a formative phasenot unlike the condition of computer science in the 1960s or biotechnology in the 1980s. Yet it is maturing rapidly. Between 1997 and 2005, investment in nanotech research and development by governments around the world soared from $432 million to about $4.1 billion, and corresponding industry investment exceeded that of governments by 2005. By 2015, products incorporating nanotech will contribute approximately $1 trillion to the global economy. About two million workers will be employed in nanotech industries, and three times that many will have supporting jobs. Descriptions of nanotech typically characterize it purely in terms of the minute size of the physical features with which it is concernedassemblies between the size of an atom and about 100 molecular diameters. That depiction makes it sound as though nanotech is merely looking to use infinitely smaller parts than conventional engineering. But at this scale, rearranging the atoms and molecules leads to new properties. One sees a transition between the fixed behavior of individual atoms and molecules and the adjustable behavior of collectives. Thus, nanotechnology might better be viewed as the application of quantum theory and other nano-specific phenomena to fundamentally control the properties and behavior of matter. Over the next couple of decades, nanotech will evolve through four overlapping stages of industrial prototyping and early commercialization. The first one, which began after 2000, involves the development of passive nanostructures: materials with steady structures and functions, often used as parts of a product. These can be as modest as the particles of zinc oxide in sunscreens, but they can also be reinforcing fibers in new composites or carbon nanotube wires in ultra miniaturized electronics. The second stage, which began in 2005, focuses on active nanostructures that change their size, shape, conductivity or other properties during use. New drug-delivery particles could release therapeutic molecules in the body only after they reached their targeted diseased tissues. Electronic components such as transistors and amplifiers with adaptive functions could be reduced to single, complex molecules. Starting around 2010, workers will cultivate expertise with systems of nanostructures, directing large numbers of intricate components to specified ends. One application could involve the guided self-assembly of nanoelectronic components into three-dimensional circuits and whole devices. Medicine could employ such systems to improve the tissue compatibility of implants, or to create scaffolds for tissue regeneration, or perhaps even to build artificial organs. After 2015-2020, the field will expand to include molecular nanosystemsheterogeneous networks in which molecules and supramolecular structures serve as distinct devices. The proteins inside cells work together this way, but whereas biological systems are water-based and markedly temperature-sensitive, these molecular nanosystems will be able to operate in a far wider range of environments and should be much faster. Computers and robots could be reduced to extraordinarily small sizes. Medical applications might be as ambitious as new types of genetic therapies and antiaging treatments. New interfaces linking people directly to electronics could change telecommunications. Over time, therefore, nanotechnology should benefit every industrial sector and health care field. It should also help the environment through more efficient use of resources and better methods of pollution control. Nanotech does, however, pose new challenges to risk governance as well. Internationally, more needs to be done to collect the scientific information needed to resolve the ambiguities and to install the proper regulatory oversight. Helping the public to perceive nanotech soberly in a big picture that retains human values and quality of life will also be essential for this powerful new discipline to live up to its astonishing potential. Drastic advancements have been encountered in the fields of electronics, medicines, science, fabrication and computational related to nanotechnology. The details are as below. 1)Future of Nanoelectronics: The recent progress of nanoelectronic devices has revealed many novel devices under consideration. Even though some devices have achieved experimental results comparable with some of the best silicon FETs, these devices have yet to show electrical characteristics beyond the basic, functional level. In several years from now, the planar MOSFET, combined with high-k dielectric and coupled with strained layer technology, is expected to maintain its domination the market, due to the fact that the manufacturers still attempt to exploit their existing manufacturing capabilities and seem reluctant to adopt new technology. However, the double- and multi-gate MOSFET scaling is superior to recent planar MOSFET and also to UTB FD MOSFET scaling, thus the double and multi-gate device is projected as the ultimate MOSFET. The role of double gate MOSFET and non-planar will take greater share, as this technology become mature and the risk are more understandable in near future. On the other hand, several issues on fabrication in adoption route to standard fabrication have to be solved for every other technology. Figure indicates the projection for the first year of full scale production for future nanoelectronic devices by ITRS, which reflect the degree of complexity in fabrication for each technology. New MOSFET structures, starting with UTB-SOI MOSFETs and followed by multi-gate MOSFETs, will be implemented soon. The next generation devices, e.g. carbon nanotubes, graphene, spin transistor etc are promising, due to their performances shown by many researches. However, the processing issues force them to take longer step to be main devices for nanoelectronics. . http://docsdrive.com/images/ansinet/jas/2010/fig8-2k10-2136-2146.gif Fig.2. Projection for the first year of full scale production for future nanoelectronic devices. Nanochips: Currently available microprocessors use resolutions as small as 32 nm. Houses up to a billion transistors in a single chip. MEMS based nanochips have future capability of 2 nm cell leading to 1TB memory per chip. C:UserssudshresDesktopnanochip.jpg Fig.3 A MEMS based nanochip Nanoelectromechanical (NEMS) Sensor in Nanophotonic systems work with light signals vs. electrical signals in electronic systems. Enable parallel processing that means higher computing capability in a smaller chip. Enable realization of optical systems on semiconductor chip. Fig.4. A silicon processor featuring on-chip nanophotonic network Fuel cells use hydrogen and air as fuels and produce water as by product. The technology uses a nanomaterial membrane to produce electricity. C:UserssudshresDesktoppem fuel cell energysolutioncenter.org.jpg Fig.5. Schematic of a fuel cell C:UserssudshresDesktopfuel cell fuel cell economy-com.gif Fig.6. 500W fuel cell Nanoscale materials have feature size less than 100 nm utilized in nanoscale structures, devices and systems. Nanoparticles and Structures C:UserssudshresDesktopgold nano particle 1 nano.gov.uk.jpg Fig.7. Gold nanoparticles C:UserssudshresDesktopNano picturesNSF silver nanoparticles.tif Fig.8. Silver Nanoparticles C:UserssudshresDesktopstm2.jpg Fig.9. A stadium shaped quantum corral made by positioning iron atoms on a copper surface C:UserssudshresDesktopnanoboquet nsf.gov.jpg Fig.10. A 3-dimensional nanostructure grown by controlled nucleation of Silicon-carbide nanowires on Gallium catalyst particles. C:UserssudshresDesktopflexible nano wire solar cell.jpg Fig.11. Nanowire Solar Cell: The nanowires create a  surface that is able to absorb more sunlight than a flat surface. 2) Nanotubes: Carbon nanotubes since their discovery are used as the building blocks in various nanotechnology applications. Although many applications are at preliminary stages of experimentation, carbon nanotubes has many future prospects in almost all spheres of electronics applications. Highly integrated circuit is one of the areas, where many researchers are focusing the research and electronic properties of carbon nanotubes are being exploited. Researchers have identified and fabricated the electronic devices having densities ten thousand times greater than the present day microelectronics. These technologies will either complement or replace the CMOS. Further the electronic devices based on carbon nanotubes have additional and advance features such as conductivity, current carrying capacity and electromigration. Semi conducting carbon nanotubes having excellent nobilities and semiconductancies have been prepared and these are far better than the conventional semi conductors. Actually there are some major barriers for developing highly integrated circuits such as present fabrication methods produces the mixture of metallic and semiconductor nanotubes and exact electronic arrangements within a semiconductor nanoube is poorly understood. These are therefore the hurdles in manufacturing and fabricating highly integrating circuits, however continuous research in this area will lead to new and much more advance technology that will not only able to overcome from these barriers but will also open the door for new electronic applications also. C:UserssudshresDesktopmr340083.f7-SnO2-TiO2 composite nanoribbon.jpeg Fig.12 Nanotube 3) Future of Nanomedicine: Nanomedicine is the application of nanotechnology in medicine, including to cure diseases and repair damaged tissues such as bone, muscle, and nerve. To develop cure for traditionally incurable diseases (e.g. cancer) through the utilization of nanotechnology and provide more effective cure with fewer side effects by means of targeted drug delivery systems.Nanotechnology is beginning to change the scaleand methods of vascular imaging and drug delivery. NanomedicineInitiatives envisage that nanoscale technologies willbegin yielding more medical benefits within the next10 years. This includes the development of nanoscalelaboratory-based diagnostic and drug discovery platform devices such as nanoscale cantilevers for chemicalforce microscopes, microchip devices, nanopore sequencing, etc. The National Cancer Institute has related programs too,with the goal of producing nanometer scale multifunctionalentities that can diagnose, deliver therapeuticagents, and monitor cancer treatment progress. These include design and engineering of targeted contrast agents that improve the resolution of cancer cells to the single cell level, and nanodevices capable of addressing the biological and evolutionary diversity of the multiple cancer cells that make up a tumor within an individual. Thus, for the full in vivo potential of nanotechnology in targeted imaging and drug delivery to be realized, nanocarriers have to get smarter. Pertinent to realizing this promise is a clear understanding of both physicochemical and physiological processes. These form the basis of complex interactions inherent to the fingerprint of a nanovehicle and its microenvironment. extracellular and intracellular drug release rates in different pathologies, interaction with biological milieu, such as opsonizati on, and other barriers enroute to the target site, be it anatomical, physiological, immunological or biochemical, and exploitation of opportunities offered by disease states (e.g., tissuespecific receptor expression and escape routes from the vasculature). There are numerous examples of disease-fighting strategies in the literature, using nanoparticles. Often, particularly in the case of cancer therapies, drug delivery properties are combined with imaging technologies, so that cancer cells can be visually located while undergoing treatment. The predominant strategy is to target specific cells by linking antigens or other biosensors (e.g. RNA strands) to the surface of the nanoparticles that detect specialized properties of the cell walls. Once the target cell has been identified, the nanoparticles will adhere to the cell surface, or enter the cell, via a specially designed mechanism, and deliver its payload. One the drug is delivered, if the nanoparticle is also an imaging agent, doctors can follow its progress and the distribution of the cancer cell is known. Such specific targeting and detection will aid in treating late-phase metastasized cancers and hard-to-reach tumors and give indications of the spread of those and other diseases. It also prolongs the life of certain drugs that have been found to last longer inside a nanoparticle than when the tumor was directly injected, since often drugs that have been injected into a tumor diffuse away before effectively killing the tumor cells. 4) Future of Nanoscience: Without carbon, life cannot exist, the saying goes, and not only life. For technological development, carbon was the ultimate material of the 19th century. It allowed the beginnings of the industrial revolution, enabling the rise of the steel and chemical industries, it made the railways run, and it played a major role in the development of naval transportation. Silicon, another very interesting material which makes up a quarter of the earths crust, became the material of the 20th century in its turn. It gave us the development of high performance electronics and photovoltaics with large fields of applications and played a pivotal role in the evolution of computer technology. The increased device performance of information and data processing systems is changing our lives on a daily basis, producing scientific innovations for a new industrial era. However, success breeds its own problems, and there is ever more data to be handled-which requires a nanoscience approach. This cluster aims to address various aspects, prospects and challenges in this area of great interest for all our futures. Carbon exists in various allotropic forms that are intensively investigated for their unusual and fascinating properties, from both fundamental and applied points of view. Among them, the sp2 (fullerenes, nanotubes and graphene) and sp3 (diamond) bonding configurations are of special interest since they have outstanding and, in some cases, unsurpassed properties compared to other materials. These properties include very high mechanical resistance, very high hardness, high resistance to radiation damage, high thermal conductivity, biocompatibility and superconductivity. Graphene, for example, possesses very uncommon electronic structure and a high carrier mobility, with charge carriers of zero mass moving at constant velocity, just like photons. All these characteristics have put carbon and carbon-related nanomaterials in the spotlight of science and technology research. The main challenges for future understanding include i) material growth, ii) fundamental properties, and iii) devel oping advanced applications. Carbon nanoparticles and nanotubes, graphene, nano-diamond and films address the most current aspects and issues related to their fundamental and outstanding properties, and describe various classes of high-tech applications based on these promising materials. Future prospects, difficulties and challenges are addressed. Important issues include growth, morphology, atomic and electronic structure, transport properties, superconductivity, doping, nanochemistry using hydrogen, chemical and bio-sensors, and bio-imaging, allowing readers to evalate this very interesting topic and draw perspectives for the future. E. Foreign Prospect of Nanotechnology Nanotechnology provides a significant opportunity to address global challenges. This is leading to intense global competition to commercialise different products enabled by nanotechnology. However, UK industry is well placed to capitalise on this opportunity and participate in the development of many new products and services by operating alone or in collaboration with international partners. Success in this area will lead to growth in employment and wealth creation. Today, nanotechnology is evolving with some mature products and many in the growth and developmental stage. This is not unlike the condition of computer science in the 1960s or biotechnology in the 1980s. Nanotechnology has been applied to the development of products and processes across many industries particularly over the past ten years. Products are now available in markets ranging from consumer products through medical products to plastics and coatings and electronics products. There have been various market reports estimating the scale of potential future value for products that are nanotechnology enabled. A report from Lux Research published in 2006 entitled The Nanotech Report 4th Edition, notes that nanotechnology was incorporated into more than $30 billion in manufactured goods in 2005. The projection is that in 2014, $2.6 trillion in manufactured goods will incorporate nanotechnology. Even if this is an over-estimate, it is clear that there is a vast market available for nanotechnology based products. It is extremely important to the UK economy that UK companies engaged in nanotechnology participate at each stage of the supply chain. While companies are moving speedily to develop further and more advanced products based on nanotechnology, they are becoming increasingly aware that there are many challenges to address. It was with this background that a Mini Innovation and Growth Team (Mini-IGT) was formed comprising members of the NanoKTN and the Materials KTN as the secretariat, together with members of the Chemistry Innovation KTN and the Sensors and Instrumentation KTN, to prepare a report on nanotechnology on behalf of UK industry. A questionnaire was sent to the members of the various KTNs to solicit feedback on their views on nanotechnology focussing on their commercial position and also their concerns and issues. While the UK Government has commissioned reports and provided responses over the past decade, in the field of nanotechnology, the UK has not articulated an overarching national strategy on nanotechnology that can rank alongside those from the likes of the US and Germany. It is intended that this report, with its unique industry led views on nanotechnology, together with other strategic documents, including the Nanoscale Technologies Strategy 2009-2012 produced by the Technology Str ategy Board, will provide a significant contribution to a future UK Government Strategy on Nanotechnology. Nanotechnology is the basis for many products that are in common use and is providing the capability to produce a very wide range of new products that will become commonplace in the near future. The UK, like many other countries, has invested heavily in nanotechnology and has considered, through a series of reports and Government responses, how to manage and fund nanotechnology developments. At the third meeting of the Ministerial Group on Nanotechnology it was agreed that a nanotechnology strategy should be developed for the UK. As part of the strategy development process, Lord Drayson launched an evidence gathering website on 7th July 2009. Alongside this, four Knowledge Transfer Networks (Nanotechnology, Materials, Chemistry Innovation and Sensors Instrumentation) with significant industrial interest in nanotechnology agreed that it was necessary for industry to contribute to policy development using the bottom up approach. It is intended that this report with its unique industry led views on nanotechnology will provide a significant contribution to a future overarching UK Government Strategy on Nanotechnology, alongside other input from inter alia the Technology Strategy Board and the Research Councils. In addition to the questionnaire, feedback was sought from industry at workshop discussions with invited industry leaders and others in the field of nanote

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Process: A computer Process means a program which is being executed. some are administrative, providing ancillary services for the remainder of the system and some are application processes. Each process has its own address space, or memory allocated to it A program may contain more than one process. E.g. we open MSWORD & then we may work with copy, paste, cut etc commands which are its sub processes or child processes. Some times a process is also called a task . A thread is a light process of executes during program execution through a program. E.g. Error messages, Alerts etc , which may appear during program execution. Multiple threads can exist within a process, but they all share a common address space. A process can be in one of three states: Running Blocked Ready (or Queued) There are five different states of a process New - The process is being created. Running - Instructions are being executed. Waiting - Waiting for some event to occur. Ready - Waiting to be assigned to a processor. Terminated - Process has finished execution. Processes must communicate with one another in computer environment e.g. we may open a MSWord & MS-Excel we perform a copy operation in MSWord & then use Paste Special function in MS-Excel , here inter process communication is being performed. That is why it is very necessary for a processes that must coordinate activities to achieve a common objective. we can also define Inter Process Communication as a set of techniques for the exchange of data among two or more threads in one or more processes. Processes may be running on one or more computers connected by a network. IPC techniques are divided into methods for message passing, synchronization, shared memory, and r... ...he scheduler,& Algorithm it uses is called the scheduling algorithm. The following are the main objectives of Scheduling: Make best use of available system resources, Give preference to those processes which are holding the key resources. Give preference to processes which are having good behavior. CPU Scheduler basically selects the process from the different processes which are residing in the memory and are ready to execute, & then allocates the CPU to one of them. The Scheduling may be Preemptive or Non-Preemptive: Non-preemptive Scheduling Once CPU has been allocated to a process, the process keeps the CPU until Process exits OR Process switches to waiting state Preemptive Scheduling Process can be interrupted and must release the CPU. Need to coordinate access to shared data E.g. when we use â€Å"Ctrl + Alt + Delete† to terminate the process forcefully.